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This site was designed by Terrie Winson to fulfill the requirements of a Navajo Studies course
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United States map showing the Navajo Nation in yellow
The Navajo Nation, with more than 250,000 members, is the largest U.S. Indian tribe. The reservation includes approximately 7,400 square miles and its boundaries extend from northwestern New Mexico into northeastern Arizona and southeastern Utah.
The size of the reservation is larger than many states, including West Virginia. There are also three smaller bands of Navajo located away from the main reservation, including the Alamo, To'hajiilee and Ramah. 1
Key cities include Crownpoint, Shiprock, Alamo, To'hajiilee, and Ramah in New Mexico, along with Tsaile, Tuba City, Kayenta, Chinle and Window Rock in Arizona. Window Rock is the capital of the Navajo Nation.
Prehistory
The origin of the Navajo tribe is the subject of controversy. Academicians, for the most part, believe that the Navajo were latecomers to the Americas, crossing a land bridge that connected the Asian continent with what is now Alaska and western Canada. The Navajo believe that they were created by sacred beings and emerged from lower worlds until reaching this, their fourth world (or fifth depending on who is telling the story).
The so-called land bridge was not really a bridge, but rather the exposed sea floor of the Bering Strait. The floor was exposed during the last ice age because the glacial areas consumed the seawater. As the ice melted, the sea slowly filled in, making passage by foot impossible. Some scholars believe that there is a possibility that the people we know as Native Americans may have traveled here by boat, but that is a subject of much controversy with religious undertones.
To the anthropologists, the Navajo are an Athapaskan-language people, closely related to those living in northern Canada in the region of the Great Slave Lake. It is believed that these northerners broke away from their southern counterparts centuries ago. These northerners call themselves Diné, as do those living in the American Southwest areas of Utah, Arizona and New Mexico in an area now known as the Navajo Nation. The Navajo refer to their land as Dinétah.
There is some evidence that the Navajo may be related to the Khanty (pronounced "han-tee") of Siberia. Several articles published in 1996 and 1997 by the Salt Lake Tribune point to not only a connection, but a "reunion" of sorts when the Navajo and Khanty embarked on several student/teacher exchanges. ``I was amazed,'' says Mose, one of 11 San Juan County educators who visited the village of Kazym in January. ``Even though we didn't speak the language, we immediately connected, like a magnet. We had a sense we were actually with our own relatives.'' 2
The Tribune article points out several other similarities, or connections, for example:
-- Navajos tell young people the tales of Coyote, who frequently embodies the moral of a story. Khanty tell similar stories, but the symbolic character is a wolf.
-- Navajos and Khanty both have clan traditions, where a child belonging to one parent's familial clan should not marry someone of his or her own or the other parent's clan.
-- Physical appearances are similar -- strong cheekbones, wide noses and rare male facial hair.
One possible explanation for the link may be a seldom-told Navajo tale, which is not well understood. The legend talks of a red star that was taken from the land of the Navajo and brought to the Bie'e' lichi'i' -- the Navajo term for Russians, which means ``Red Clothing.'' ``The red star is sacred like a crystal to the Navajo People,'' says Mose. ``Some [Siberian tribes] say that there was a red star that fell from the sky in their country, though no one actually knows the reasoning behind the legend.''
To symbolically mark the reunion of the ancestral cultures, medicine man David Yanito of Bluff [Utah] performed a sacred ceremony in Navajo that joined the two nations together ``as brother and sister.''
In another article, published by the Salt Lake Tribune in November, 1997, Mose discusses his experience visiting with a shaman in the Khanty village of Kazym. One of the ``most astonishing'' Khanty stories, says Mose, was of the Khanty ``Ancestral Trail,'' the path Alexei says was taken by his Asiatic ancestors over the Bering Strait, traveling between Asia and America. ``This is the same theory the Navajo hold regarding the Hak'az Dine'e or People of the Cold, who separated from us long ago and went north,'' says Mose. ``This and other stories of the shaman convinced me of the ties between these people of the near Artic region and my own Navajo tribe. They are what my people call the Naa' Diné -- the other people.'' 3
Despite current theory that the Navajo, along with all the other Native American cultures, traveled across the land bridge and traversed the North American continent, the oldest dates for any human habitation in the western hemisphere is in South America. The Navajo, according to their creation myths, believe that they arrived in their current land from the south. Much is yet to be explored and discovered about their origins and much may never be discovered.
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Sacred Mountains
The Navajos belief is that their Creator placed them on the land between the following 4 mountains representing the 4 cardinal directions:
· East
Mount Blanca (Tsisnaasjini' - Dawn or White Shell Mountain)
Sacred Mountain of the East
near Alamosa in San Luis Valley, Colorado
· South
Mount Taylor (Tsoodzil - Blue Bead or Turquoise Mountain)
Sacred Mountain of the South
north of Laguna, New Mexico
· West
San Francisco Peaks (Doko'oosliid - Abalone Shell Mountain)
Sacred Mountain of the West
near Flagstaff, Arizona
· North
Mount Hesperus (Dibé Nitsaa - Obsidian Mountain)
Sacred Mountain of the North
La Plata Mountains, Colorado
The following inner mountains within the borders formed by the 4 sacred mountains are also held as sacred because of their importance in Navajo mythology:
· Huerfano Mesa
Dzil Na'oodilii - Holy People (Navajo Deities) Encircling Mountain
Sacred Mountain of the Center
60 miles southeast of Bloomfield, New Mexico.
This is where Changing Woman received her puberty, gave birth to
her warrior twins, and lived in the first hogan. It is considered to be
the "lungs" of Navajo country.
· Governador Knob
Ch'oolii - Sacred Mountain East of Center
in Old Navajoland (Dinetah), near and southeast of the Navajo
Dam. Where Changing Woman was found, it is considered to be the
"heart" of Navajo country.
· Navajo Mountain
Naatsis'áán - Head of the Earth
southeast Utah
These mountains represent the major parts of the traditional
Navajo religious beliefs, helping them to live in harmony with both
nature and their Creator. 4
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Historic Period
· The Spaniards
The historic period began with the coming of the Europeans; first the Spanish and then the Anglos who eventually settled into the area and claimed the territory for the United States. Hundreds of years before the Navajo arrived in the American Southwest, the Anasazi inhabited the canyons and cliffs of the area. They built huge dwellings into the cliffs and practiced agriculture. They abandoned these dwellings and it is believed that they became modern-day pueblo tribes such as the Hopi, Zuni, Acoma and Taos.
By the time of Navajo arrival, these groups were already well-established in their cultures. The Navajo, a nomadic people, sometimes raided these settlements for food and women. They also incorporated parts of these cultures into their own.
The Spaniards arrived in the western hemisphere in 1492, by mistake when Columbus believed he had found a new trade route to China. The first Spanish conquest was of the Aztec people in what is now Mexico by Hernando Cortez. He had heard of riches in what was called the Seven Cities of Gold in modern day New Mexico. By the year 1540, an explorer named Francisco Coronado had raised an army and set out to find these riches. When there was no gold to be found, Coronado ordered his men to attack. Afterward, word spread throughout the many pueblo villages and these people realized that the Spaniards might attack them next.
"They decided on a plan to save their villages. When the Spanish soldiers arrived at each village, the Pueblos told them that there were rich lands to the east. They were very far away but, the Pueblo chiefs promised, if the soldiers would just keep riding, they would find much gold. The Pueblo people hoped that they would never see the soldiers again; they knew that Coronado might spend years searching for riches, but he would never find them." 5
In 1598, several hundred settlers arrived in the pueblo areas, including church, civil and military authorities. By this time, the Navajo had already learned farming from the Pueblo villages they sometimes raided. Sheepherding and ranching, heavily practiced by the Navajo, along with silversmithing, had been brought to the Southwest by Spanish colonists. The Spaniards began "civilizing" the Indians, making demands for labor and tribute from then in addition to abolishing Indian religious practices. 6 Any Indian caught in the act of practicing a non-Christian religion would be severely punished, publicly. As these abuses continued, the Indians became more incensed. Finally, in 1680, Popé of San Juan Pueblo united the sometimes-rivalrous pueblos and led them in a revolt against the Spanish. Those Spaniards who survived, fled to what is now the El Paso, TX area.
The Pueblos were not reconquered until 1693. The Indians had anticipated a reconquest attempt and abandoned most of the pueblos. Some hid in the mountains, a few resisted and many took refuge among the Hopi, Apache and Navajo. Eventually, the Spaniards and Pueblo peoples managed to maintain an outwardly peaceful existence.
The Pueblo Revolt and subsequent close contact with the Pueblo people was a turning point for the Navajo way of life and traditions. Over time, the Navajo began to incorporate parts of the Pueblo culture and mythology into their own, including the kachina, corn pollen ceremonies, Sandpainting, and even ascribing certain sacred sites as their own. From the Pueblos, the Navajo learned the art of weaving and are now world famous for their blankets and rugs.
· The Anglo-Americans
"In 1846, what are now known as the states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah were still part of Mexico (which had won its independence from the Spaniards and formed its own country). Texas had once belonged to Mexico, too, but in 1836 the Texans rebelled and began their own country. Later, when Texas joined the United States, the Mexican and Americans leaders could not agree on which parts of Texas belonged to either country. Both the United States and Mexico sent soldiers to the Rio Grande River in Texas. When the Mexican and American soldiers began shooting at each other, the United States invaded Mexico." 5 By 1848, the Americans had defeated the Mexicans and claimed the southwestern states for its own. The Mexican government ceded more than 1.2 million square miles of land in exchange for $15 million. Neither country gave any thought to the native nations who had occupied these lands long before either Mexico or the United States ever existed.
The coming of the Americans brought with it problems similar in nature to the problems of Spanish conquest, namely, the distrust of the Indian religious practices. Viewing them as "obscene and immoral", the American Protestant missionaries and U.S. Indian Services officials took steps to stop them. Indian children were sent to boarding schools where they would learn American ways and religions. These children would be severely punished if they spoke their native languages or practiced their religions. When word reached the Pueblos and Navajos, the families reverted to the secrecy they practiced under Spanish oppression. 6
Navajos occasionally raided the Pueblo villages, along with Spanish and Anglo-Americans. Any captives brought in, when adopted and treated humanely, "further enriched the indigenous cultural inventory." Since the Navajo did not feel forced to accept the beliefs of other cultures, they felt comfortable in utilizing those aspects of these cultures they desired, while rejecting what they did not want or need. 6
Although by now, the Navajo were no longer the nomads of old, they did not live in the types of villages or communities common among the Pueblo and other Indian tribes. Rather, they lived far apart from other members of their tribe; residing in close family units in structures known as hogans. It can be said that, until the American government interfered, the Navajo were not even a traditional "tribe" but rather a loose organization of people of the same basic culture. They had no official leader to speak for them as a whole or to make pacts with outsiders on their behalf.
As settlers poured into the new American territory, the U.S. government began exerting control over the native populations. "On August 31, 1849, U. S. representatives James Calhoun and Colonel John Washington, accompanied by some American soldiers, held a conference with a group of Navajo people in the Chuska Mountains of what is now northeastern Arizona. The American officials hoped to explain their government's plans for building forts and peacefully settling in the region.
"Unfortunately, the meeting ended abruptly in an outburst of violence over a misunderstanding. In the ensuing clash, soldiers shot and killed seven Navajos, including an influential leader named Narbona. The survivors told other Navajos about the incident, spreading fear and hatred of the hostile intruders among the tribes-people." 7
Zarcillo Largo and Ganado Mucho had signed treaties with the Americans, but since there was no one official leader for the tribe, not only did very few others know about it, they were not so inclined to go along with the treaty once it was known.
The U. S. Army constructed a fort in what is now the eastern Arizona area of Navajo country, inciting more animosity among the Navajo. A dislike of the commander compelled the Navajo to murder the commander's slave, Jim. This then set off a chain reaction wherein the commander ordered the Navajo to turn in the murderer. Largo offered money instead but his offer was declined. Eventually, the Navajo brought in a dead Mexican and claimed him as the murderer. The commander was not convinced and ordered American troops be dispatched. Navajos who may never have been involved, who may never have even known about the episode were killed by American soldiers.
"At the end of April 1860, Manuelito and Baboncito, influential among the Navajo, determined to eliminate the American presence on their land. They led around a thousand warriors in a massive attack on Fort Defiance. The Navajos almost took the fort, but the U.S. troops finally drove the warriors back." 7
After other skirmishes, the American Army officials were convinced that the Navajo needed military force to compel the Navajos to submit to federal authority. General James Carleton was named commander in New Mexico in the fall of 1862. Since the Civil War had already broken out, Carleton did not have adequate resources. Those soldiers he did have would have preferred to be on the battlefront.
With the increasing non-Indian population feeling vulnerable to attack by the Indians and the need of his soldiers to exercise their thirst for battle, Carleton got approval from the governor of the New Mexico territory to fight the tribes for eventual roundup and removal. He also believed that there were gold ore and other minerals on Navajo lands that could be exploited once the Indians were successfully relocated. The plan was to move the Navajo, along with the Apache, to Fort Sumner to the east. He also figured that he could change their ways by restricting their movement, confining them to a specific tract of land under American control. His eventual plan was to assimilate these tribes into mainstream American society.
Christopher (Kit) Carson was chosen by Carleton to head up the newly formed operation against the Navajo, although Carson had doubts as to the workability and wisdom of the plan. The Mescalero Apache were the first to be successfully relocated to Fort Sumner.
"In July 1863, Carson and his men journeyed to Fort Defiance to begin their campaign to subdue the Navajo people. According to Carleton's explicit instructions, all Indians who refused to surrender and relocate ran the risk of being killed. But his message was never communicated to the Navajos… there were far more Navajo than Apache and the rugged terrain increased the challenge of tracking the Indians down. [Carson] found himself compelled to take drastic measures to comply with Carleton's ruthless orders." 7
Advancing into the sacred site of Canyon De Chelly (near Chinle), Carson's troops embarked on a scorched earth program, hoping to force the surrender of the starving Navajo. By the end of 1864, around 8,000 Navajo had surrendered. They were forcefully marched all the way to Fort Sumner in eastern New Mexico (a trip of over 400 miles that would take over 8 hours to drive). Known as The Long Walk, the Navajo suffered greatly. If any resisted, they were physically abused. Even the elderly and small children were forced to keep up with no time to rest.
Although some Navajo did manage to escape, eventually many turned themselves over to the Americans. At Fort Sumner, the Navajos suffered terribly from their confinement and separation from their homeland. The Navajo were supposed to be fed but the suppliers charged with provided rations were corrupt and gave meager portions of spoiled food. Many Navajo became ill and many died. Even the army personnel who had promised to take care of the Navajo raided the outpost.
Eventually, the non-Indian population became critical of Carleton's plan and accused him of being unjust and a poor manager. They figured that it would cost less to move the Indians to another area not under government control. A plan was conceived to move the Navajo to an already established Indian Territory in what is now Oklahoma. Barboncito, speaking for the Navajo, rejected the offer and asked instead to be returned to the homeland. By now, there were a few men among the Navajo who were officially recognized as their representatives. A treaty with the U.S. government resulted in the Navajo being given 3.5 million acres in what is now northeast Arizona and northwest New Mexico. The treaty also provided for schooling, sheep, seeds, and farm equipment. The sheep along with cattle and horses would eventually lead to not only relative prosperity and growth for the Navajo, but also to more strife with the American government.
In spite of all that the U.S. government had done to the Navajos as well as all the other Indian tribes, the Navajo still felt as if this were their country when, in December 1941 the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on an island in Hawaii which was not yet a state. Enlisting in the military, the Navajo spoke in their own language over the airwaves and their "code" was never broken by the Japanese. Amazingly, it was not until 1948 that they were given the right to vote in New Mexico! They had just recently been recognized as citizens of the United States, along with the right to vote, in 1924.
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Arts
The Navajo are well-known for their many crafts including weaving of blankets and rugs, silversmithing, and Sandpainting. Although originally begun as necessity, weaving of blankets became more refined thru influence from nearby Pueblo people. With the sheep given to the Navajo by the American government, they raised, sheared, spun and dyed their own wool and invented many intricate patterns. Through a system of trade set up by some non-Indians in shops known as Trading Posts, the Navajo were encouraged to experiment with different designs which would appeal to the non-Indian settlers. Now, each region of the Navajo Nation is reflected in its own design of blankets and rugs, although individual weavers do make up different patterns. Each weaver keeps the pattern in her head while weaving. These blankets and rugs can take many months to create.
Many designs are used everywhere. Weavers individualize too.
Some Navajos had learned silversmithing from Mexicans before the era of The Long Walk. Now traders encouraged them to become master silversmiths. "Lorenzo Hubbell [of Ganado] brought Mexican silversmiths to the reservation to teach more Navajo men this skill, and soon these students instructed still more tribesmen. Using Mexican and U.S. coins (such as silver dollars) as raw material, these smiths fashioned intricate belt buckles, buttons, bracelets, rings, earrings, necklaces horse bridles, and other items.
"By the 1890s, Navajo silversmiths had begun setting turquoise into their jewelry. This bluish mineral was mined nearby and brought to the reservation by traders. The juxtaposition of turquoise and silver rapidly became a distinctively Navajo look. This jewelry was soon as popular within the tribe as it was with non-Indians." 7
Sandpainting, unlike the other Navajo arts, is not practiced for the sake of the non-Indian public. Created for the purpose of bringing the Navajo patient back into harmony and balance, the shaman and his assistants created the Sandpainting (more correctly known as a drypainting) as part of a healing ceremony. For more information on Sandpainting, please see my website at http://www.anthro4n6/navajosandpainting
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20th Century
· Sheep
To the Navajo, "sheep is life." This statement became clear when I heard the following story:
One day, a man came to the reservation to make a movie. Through an interpreter, a Navajo man was asked for permission to film. After much discussion, none of which the moviemaker understood, the interpreter asked if filming would hurt the sheep. The moviemaker assured both men that, no, the filming would not hurt the sheep. After more animated discussion in Navajo, the interpreter asked, "will it help the sheep?" 8
Although the Navajo have become a relatively prosperous nation due to the growth of their herds, such growth has also been the source of land erosion. In such a dry climate, grazing lands are sparse. As the soil erodes, the silt runs off into the Colorado River, possibly endangering the waters downstream. In addition, the Navajo risked a reduction in income even as the herds were increasing. This was because as overgrazing occurs and erosion results, the herds can no longer remain healthy. Weights were below normal and the wool was not of the quality that could bring the prices necessary to maintain the nation.
In an effort to help the people maintain their prices, as well as to make an attempt at reversing the problems associated with erosion, John Collier (U.S. commissioner of Indian Affairs) instituted a policy of trying to increase their land grant as well as encourage them to voluntarily reduce their herds. However, the Navajo did not understand how a reduction in the number of sheep would help them and they steadfastly refused. In addition, the problems of overgrazing had come about at a time of national economic distress and the market for Navajo wool had sharply declined. In an effort to help the Navajo he made himself appear to be the enemy when he instituted a policy of forcibly reducing the herds by slaughter. Although the Navajo were paid for the sheep that were killed, they resented Collier nonetheless.
During this time, Collier was also trying to help the Navajo reorganize their tribal government by offering federal funds with which to buy more land, along with federal loans for tribal economic development. Influential Navajos wanted a Constitution but because Collier was so distrusted, the tribal vote was against any of his recommendations. Other programs he tried to establish for them also failed for the same reason.
The Navajo operate a lumber mill, as well as a power plant. Leasing to strip-mining companies seemed like a good idea in the 1960s but it was soon apparent that there were many inherent problems with this plan. The Navajo soon realized that they were selling their birthright for short-term gain. During the time of prosperity for the rest of the country, an age of microchip development helped the Navajo negotiate a contract with Fairchild Semiconductor, which would lease land on the reservation, and train and employ Navajo. Although it seemed for a while that this business venture was going well, the United States entered into a short period of economic recession. Fairchild had to lay off a number of workers which incensed the members of a radical Indian group called the American Indian Movement. They seized the plant in protest and this prompted Fairchild to shut down its operation on Navajo soil permanently.
· Land
As the Navajo's herds increased, so did their own population, necessitating a need for even more land. Over a period of about 70 years, their land area was enlarged many times. Now, they completely surround the Hopi, a peaceful Pueblo nation. Some Navajo and Hopi share the same land within the Hopi territory.
No modern American politician would want to be seen on worldwide television and the Internet forcibly removing the Navajo from what they view is "sacred" land, nor would they want to relocate the Hopi.
Disputed Joint-Use Land Area is in blue
Remembering The Long Walk, the treatment of their land by outsiders, their own governmental problems and their continued integration of other cultures into their own promise to make the Navajo stronger in the years to come.
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